EUROPEAN SOCIETY IN THE AGE OF THE RENAISSANCE, Chapter 13,
pages 403-437

I. INTRODUCTION, page 403

1. 14th. century Italian Renaissance
2. 15th. century Northern Renaissance
 

II. THE EVOLUTION OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE, pages 403-408

1. 1050-1300: commercial and financial development, growing political power
    of self-governing cities, great population expansion
2. Northern Italian cities: Venice, Genoa, Milan - overseas trade; Venice,
    Genoa - shipbuilding
3. Florence - Birthplace of the Renaissance; end of 13th. century merchants
    and bankers acquired control of papal banking - stepping stone to
    domination of European banking; wool industry
4. 1344 Edward III of England repudiates his debt to Florentine bankers;
    1/2 population succumbs to the Black Death; labor unrest

a. In spite of various setbacks in the 14th. century, what remained true
    concerning the Florentine economic structure?

Communes and Republics

5. communes -sworn associations of free men seeking complete political and
    economic independence from local nobles
6. role of marriage in uniting rural nobility with the mercantile aristocracy
    to form a new urban nobility
7. property qualification, years of residence, social connections needed for
    citizenship
8. populo - non-citizens, disfranchised and heavily taxed; revolts
    established republics
9. 1300, signori (despots, one-man rulers) or oligarchies (rule of merchant
    aristocracies): facade of republican government

b. What functions were performed by the merchant guilds of the northern
    Italian cities?
c. Why did the republican governments established by the populo fail?
 

The Balance of Power Among the Italian City-States

10. primary loyalty to the city-state
11. 15th. century: Italy dominated by Venice, Milan, Florence, the Papal
     States, and the kingdom of Naples
12. Sforza family controls Milan
13. 1434-1494, Medicis control Florence, Cosimo (1434-64), Lorenzo (1469-92)
14. Papal States: Alexander VI (1492-1503), son Cesare Borgia
15. Machiavelli, The Prince
16. creation of permanent embassies with resident ambassadors

17. Florence: Savanarola (1452-1498), fall of the Medicis; his religious
     excesses led to his excommunication and execution
18. Charles VIII (r.1483-1498) of France invades Italy 1494; Italy becomes a
     battle field for competing foreign armies
19. 1508 Louis XII, the pope, and Emperor Maximilian form the League of
     Cambrai to take Venice's mainland possessions
20. Pope Leo X allies with Spain and Germany to oust the French
21. 1519 Charles V becomes emperor of the HRE
22. 1522 beginning of Hapsburg-Valois Wars; sack of Rome 1527 by Charles V

d. How did the Italian city-states guarantee that no one state would become
    too powerful?
e. Why was Italy an inviting target for foreign invasion?

III. INTELLECTUAL HALLMARKS OF THE RENAISSANCE, pages 408-411

1. realization of living in a new age
2. Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374); coined term "Dark Ages"
3. Renaissance identified with Greco-Roman greatness, not the Middle Ages
4. individualism, interest in Latin classics, secular spirit

Individualism

5. Middle Ages: Christian humility discouraged celebration of the individual
6. Renaissance brings new attitudes to intellectuals: emphasis on personality
    uniqueness, genius, full development of talent, ambition, desire for
    success, quest for glory

Humanism

7. Pope Nicholas V (r.1447-1455) - planned Vatican Library for collection of
    manuscripts; built by Pope Sixtus IV (r.1471-1484)
8. revival of antiquity
9. study of Latin classics - "the new learning" or "humanism"; humanitas -
    Cicero's term for the literacy culture needed by anyone wishing to be
    considered educated and civilized; emphasized the achievements, interests
    and capabilities of human beings

Secular Spirit

10. secularism, involved with what the senses can discover, emphasis on here
    rather than the hereafter
11. Lorenzo Valla (1406-1457): father of modern historical criticism,
    disproved the validity of the Donation of Constantine to the papacy
12. Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375), The Decameron, portrayal of a worldly
     society
13. Church leaders followed a worldly lifestyle
 
 
 
 
 

IV. ART AND THE ARTIST, pages 411-416

1. 1400's: Quattrocento; 1500's: Cinquecento
2. Florence; High Renaissance: 1500-1527, Rome, art exhibited classical
    balance, harmony, and restraint
3. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)
4. Raphael (1483-1520)
5. Michelangelo (1475-1564)

Art and Power

6. art by commission; corporate patronage
7. Filippo Brunelleschi (1420-1492), built dome on the Cathedral of Florence
8. Lorenzo Ghiberti, designed the bronze doors of the Baptistry of the
    Cathedral of Florence
9. Michelangelo, sculpture of David
10. religious themes dominated
11. later 15th. century: individual and oligarchical patronage becomes
     popular; more secular subject matter emerges - classical themes
12. emergence of the portrait
13. Giotto (1276-1337), precursor in the use of realism
14. Donatello (1386-1466): revival of the classical nude figure
15. Masaccio (1401-1428): father of modern painting, effective use of light
     and dark, use of perspective in painting
16. international style: rich color, decorative detail, curvilinear rhythms,
     swaying forms
17. more scientific and natural depiction of the human body

The Status of the Artist

18. reputation depended on support of powerful patrons
19. Titian (1477-1576)
20. signing of paintings; self-portraits; concept of the artist as a genius

a. Why can the Renaissance not be called "democratic"?

V. SOCIAL CHANGE, pages 416-423

Education and Political Thought

21. education of children viewed as an interest of the State
22. Baldassare Castiglione, The Courtier 1528: model for the European
     gentleman
23. Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527), The Prince: treatise on political power,
     the government of reality
24. Machiavellian: politically devious, corrupt and crafty - "the end
     justifies the means"

b. According to Machiavelli, what is the test of a "good" government?
c. What is the significance of Machiavelli's philosophy?

The Printed Word

25. 13th. century: block printing reaches Europe from China
26. 1455 movable type: Johann Gutenberg, Johann Fust, Peter Schoffer; Mainz
27. paper: originated in China, introduced to the West by the Arabs;
     replaced vellum and parchment
28. 1456: Gutenberg Bible

d. What changes resulted from the development of the printing press?

Women in Renaissance Society

29. Laura Cereta (1469-1499)
30. framework for the "double standard"; light penalties for rape; abortion;
     infanticide; establishment of the Foundling Hospital

e. How did the status of upper class women decline during the Renaissance?
f. How did Renaissance humanism effect educational advances for women?
g. Why did some men believe that learned women "ceased to be women"?
h. What was the intended purpose of education for girls?
i. What was the intended purpose of education for boys?
j. What was the difference between the literature of courtly love and the
   Renaissance ideas as represented in The Courtier?
k. What was the effect of the Renaissance on ordinary men and women? What
   did this signify?

Blacks in Renaissance Society

31. roles: maids, valets, domestic servants, page boys, gondoliers and
     stevedores in Venice, agricultural laborers, craftsmen, herdsmen, musical
     and dramatic performers

l. Why were there more blacks in Europe beginning in the 15th. century?
m. Why were black slaves highly prized during the Renaissance?
 

VI. THE RENAISSANCE IN THE NORTH, pages 423-426

1. late 15th. century: northern European students went to Italy to obtain
    the "new learning"
2. Northern Humanists stress biblical and early Christian motifs: program for
    broad social reform based on Christian ideals
3. Christian Humanists: development of an ethical way of life by combining
    the best elements of classical and Christian cultures and utilizing the
    powers of reason; belief that human nature was fundamentally good and
    capable of improvement through education
4. Jacques Lefevre d'Etaples (1455-1536): French, edition of the Psalms,
    commentary on epistles of St. Paul
5. Thomas More (1478-1535): English, ambassador to Flanders, Utopia (1516),
    concept that vices were promoted by greed and the possession of private
    property, reform the individual by reforming social institutions
6. Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536): Dutch, spokesperson for Christian Humanism
    The Praise of Folly (1509), critical edition of the Greek New Testament
    (1516)
7. Francois Rabelais (1490-1553): French, Gargantua and Pantagruel (1532-
    1552), Rabelaisian, use of satire
8. Flemish painting: Rogier van der Weyden (1399-1464), Jan van Eyck (1366-
    1441) - early use of oil-based paints, Jerome Bosch (1450-1516)

a. What themes permeate the work of Erasmus?
 

VII. POLITICS AND THE STATE IN THE RENAISSANCE (1450-1521),
pages 426-432

1. strong monarchs reassert central authority: Italian city-states, Louis XI
    of France, Henry VII of England, Ferdinand of Aragon in Spain - the "New
    Monarchs"
2. monarchy allies with the middle class

France

3. Charles VII (r.1422-1461): revived the monarchy following the Hundred
    Years' War
4. imposition of the gabelle and the taille land tax
5. reformation of the justice system; creation of the first permanent royal
    army
6. 1438 Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges: asserted the supremacy of a general
    council over the papacy, gave major control of appointment of bishops to
    the monarchy, deprived the pope of French ecclesiastical revenues --
    the Gallican liberties
7. Louis XI (r.1461-1483): Spider King, promoted new industries, welcomed
    tradesmen and foreign craftsmen, formed commercial treaties with England,
    Portugal, and the Hanseatic League; increased the territory under the
    control of the monarchy through conquest and the extinction of the House
    of Anjou
8. Louis XII (r.1498-1515), Anne of Brittany
9. Francis I and Pope Leo X, Concordat of Bologna 1516 rescinded the part of
    the Pragmatic Sanction which recognized a council over the pope and
    granted the first year's income of new bishops and abbots to the pope in
    return for papal recognition of the monarch's right to appoint prelates

England

10. Henry IV (r.1399-1413); Henry V (r.1413-1422); Henry VI (r.1422-1461);
    Wars of the Roses [1455-1471 (1485)], Houses of Lancaster and York;
    Edward IV (r.1461-1483); Richard III (r.1483-1485); Henry VII (r.1485-
    1509), House of Tudor
11. Edward IV revives medieval policy of "living on his own", ie. without
    asking Parliament for revenue; resulted in foreign policy favoring
    diplomacy rather than fighting expensive wars
12. Henry VII uses Parliament to confirm laws; royal council was center of
    royal authority; Court of the Star Chamber
13. no standing army or professional civil service; justices of the peace
    handled all local government
14. Henry VII: encouraged the cloth industry, built up the merchant marine,
    peace with Scotland via marriage of sister Margaret to James IV

a. What was the purpose of the Court of the Star Chamber?
b. Why did the commercial class support the Tudors?

Spain

15. Iberian peninsula, varied cultures: Hispanic, Roman, Visigothic, Muslims,
     Jews
16. Reconquista; Castile, Aragon, Navarre, Granada, Portugal
17. 1469 - marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon
18. Ferdinand and Isabella (r.1474-1516); revival of hermandades (groups in
     towns authorized to act as local police forces and judicial tribunals) -
     disbanded 1498; restructuring of the royal council to exclude aristocrats
     and include members of the middle class; Pope Alexander VI confers power
     to appoint bishops to the Spanish crown
19. January 6, 1492 completion of the Reconquista with the conquest of
     Granada; 1512 Navarre conquered
20. St. John Chrysostom, 4th. century justification for intolerance of Jews;
     anti-Semitism; pogroms; conversos; revival of Inquisition 1478; 1492 all
     practicing Jews expelled from Spain

21. 1496 Joanna of Castile married archduke Philip, heir to the Netherlands
and the Holy Roman Empire; Charles V (r.1519-1556) - king of Spain, the
Netherlands, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire

c. What was the nature of government at the beginning of Ferdinand's and
Isabella's reign?
d. How influential were Jews in 15th. century Spain?
e. Why did many in Spain resent the conversos?
 

VIII. LISTENING TO THE PAST: A UNIVERSAL MAN, pages 436-437
 

REFORM AND RENEWAL IN THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH, Chapter 14,
pages 439-475

I. INTRODUCTION, pages 439-440

** Good overview **
 

II. THE CONDITION OF THE CHURCH (1400-1517), pages 440-443

1. 14th. century conciliar movement
2. humanist criticism of the Church

a. What events of the 13th. century had damaged the prestige of the papacy?

Signs of Disorder

3. clerical immorality, clerical ignorance, clerical pluralism, absenteeism
4. call for moral and administrative reform
5. 4th. century celibacy requirement for the clergy
6. benefices
7. high living among the upper clergy and the pope
8. Renaissance Popes: Pius II (1458-1464) - wrote love stories and Latin
    poetry; Sixtus IV (1471-1484) - patron of the arts, built the Sistine
    Chapel; Innocent VIII (1484-1492) - papal court model of luxury and
    scandal; Alexander VI (1492-1503) - advanced the interests of his
    notorious family, the Borgias; Julius II (1503-1513) - led papal troops
    against the French; Pope Leo X (1513-1521) - patron of the arts, son of
    Lorenzo d'Medici

b. What practice was used to compensate political officeholders by monarchs
    trying to save money?

Signs of Vitality

9. Spain: Cardinal Francisco Jimenez (1436-1517) - encouraged high standards
for monastic life and clerical training
10. Holland: late 14th. century, Brethren of the Common Life, Thomas a Kempis
The Imitation of Christ
11. Italy: Oratories of Divine Love
12. Papacy: Julius II, ecumenical council 1512-1517 - recommended higher
standards for the education of the clergy, instruction of the common
people, doctrinal reforms

III. MARTIN LUTHER AND THE BIRTH OF PROTESTANTISM, pages 443-451

1. Martin Luther (1483-1546)

Luther's Early Years

2. University of Erfurt, prepared to study law
3. Monastery of the Augustine Friars at Erfurt 1505
4. Professor of the Scriptures, University of Wittenberg (1512-1546)

a. Why did Luther not pursue a legal career as his father wanted?
b. What conclusion did Luther reach by studying the letters of St. Paul?

The Ninety-five Theses

5. Pope Leo X authorizes the sale of indulgences for the purpose of paying
    back the Fuggers for a loan given to Archbishop Albert of Madgeburg,
    Halberstadt, and Mainz for the purchase of a papal dispensation to hold
    plural offices
6. Frederick of Saxony forbids the sale of indulgences in his duchy
7. John Tetzel
8. October 31, 1517
9. 1519 debate with John Eck: Luther denies the authority of the pope and the
    infallibility of a general council
10. 1521 Diet of Worms, Charles V orders Luther to recant; Luther declared an
     outlaw but granted protection by Duke Frederick of Saxony

c. What was Luther's purpose in posting the 95 Theses?
d. Upon what did Luther base his rejection of indulgences?
e. What was the response of Luther's opponents?

Protestant Thought

11. Confession of Augsburg 1513: 1) Salvation from faith alone; 2) Authority
    rests in the Bible as interpreted by the individual; 3) Church consists
    of the entire community of Christian believers; 4) All vocations are
    equally meritorious
12. Ulrich Zwingli, Swiss, Eucharist is a memorial of the Last Supper
13. John Calvin, French, body and blood of Christ are spiritually present in
    the Eucharist

f. What is the origin of the term Protestant?
g. Besides the tenets of the Confession of Augsburg, what other differences
    developed between Catholicism and Lutheranism?

The Social Impact of Luther's Beliefs

14. establishment of preacherships
15. On Christian Liberty 1520
16. Twelve Articles 1525: statement of peasant grievances in Swabia; Luther's
    initial support changes to disapproval; Against the Murderous, Thieving
    Hordes of the Peasants encouraged a brutal suppression of the Peasants'
    Revolt
17. Lutheran exaltation of the State, subordination of Church to State
18. importance of the printing press to the spread of Luther's ideas
19. translation of New Testament into German 1523, Larger Catechism, Shorter
    Catechism, hymns

h. What two factors laid the groundwork for the popularity of Luther's ideas
    in the German states?
i. Why were German peasants attracted to Luther's teachings?
j. What was the effect of Luther's teachings on women?
 

IV. GERMANY AND THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION, pages 452-456

1. Golden Bull 1356: legalized government by an aristocratic federation in
    the Holy Roman Empire
2. Seven Electors: Archbishops of Mainz, Trier, Cologne, margrave of
    Brandenburg, duke of Saxony, count palatine of the Rhine, king of Bohemia
3. decentralization of power

The Rise of the Hapsburg Dynasty

4. 1477 marriage of Maximilian I (Hapsburgs) and Mary of Burgundy
5. Treaty of Arras 1482: French Burgundy became part of the kingdom of France

** Note Dynastic Chart page 452 **

6. subordination of German interests to the Hapsburg imperial concerns

a. What problems continued after the Treaty of Arras?

The Political Impact of Luther's Beliefs

7. 1520 Luther's Appeal to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation;
    encouraged German patriotism and resistance to Roman control
8. 5 wars between Charles V and France 1521-1555: Hapsburg-Valois Wars
9. 1555 Peace of Augsburg

b. What was the belief regarding who determined the religion of an area and
the possibility of practicing a different religion?
c. What non-religious reason did German princes have to support Lutheranism?
d. Why were the decisions of the Diet of Worms not enforced?
e. How did the Turkish threat tie Charles V's hands in dealing with the
German princes?
f. What was the "cornerstone" of French foreign policy in the 16th. and 17th.
centuries?

V. THE GROWTH OF THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION, pages 456-465

Calvinism

1. John Calvin (1509-1564); law; religious crisis and conversion to
Protestantism 1533
2. Geneva 1541: model of a Christian community - theocracy
3. The Institutes of the Christian Religion 1536, 1559
4. Genevan Catechism 1541
5. Genevan Consistory: 12 laymen plus the Company of Pastors - strict control
of citizen conduct
6. Calvinism was the root theology for Scottish Presbyterians, French
Huguenots, English and American Puritans
7. concept of the "calling" dignified all vocations; hard work pleased God

a. What were the major beliefs of Calvinism? 

The Anabaptists

8. subject to banishment or execution for their beliefs
9. ideas influenced Quakers, Baptists, Congregationalists, writers of the
    U.S. Constitution

b. What were the basic beliefs of the Anabaptists?

The English Reformation

10. Lollards: stressed individual reading of the Bible, opposed
    ecclesiastical wealth, veneration of saints, prayers for the dead, war
11. William Tyndale (1494-1536): English translation of the New Testament
12. Henry VIII (r.1509-1547); Catherine of Aragon, Princess Mary, Anne Boleyn
13. Act in Restraint of Appeals 1533: forbade judicial appeals to the papacy
14. Act for the Submission of the Clergy 1534: ecclesiastical laws could not
    be published without the king's permission
15. Supremacy Act 1534 declared the king the supreme head of the Church of
    England
16. Opposition: John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester; Thomas More, Chancellor
17. Anne Boleyn - Elizabeth; Jane Seymour - Edward; Anne of Cleves; Catherine
    Howard; Catherine Parr
18. Act of Succession: Edward, Mary, Elizabeth
19. Thomas Cromwell, Chief Minister 1535-1539; dissolution of the English
    monasteries
20. 1536 Pilgrimage of Grace; 1546 rebellions in East Anglia
21. establishment of a governmental bureaucracy
22. Edward VI (1547-1553); Archbishop Thomas Cramner; Book of Common Prayer
    1549
23. Mary I (1553-1558); return of Catholicism; marriage to Philip of Spain
    persecution of Protestants
24. Elizabeth I (1558-1603): beginning of religious stability; growth of
    Puritanism; Elizabethan Settlement
25. 1563 Thirty-Nine Articles

c. Why didn't Pope Clement VII grant Henry VIII and annulment in his marriage
    to Catherine of Aragon?
d. What happened to the lands confiscated from the English monasteries?
e. What were the conditions of the Elizabethan Settlement?

The Establishment of the Church of Scotland

26. King James V, Mary Queen of Scots (r.1560-1567) opposed religious reform;
    nobles supported reform
27. John Knox (1505-1572); 1560 Scottish parliament ends papal authority,
    abolishes the mass, attendance at mass punishable by death
28. Presbyterian Church of Scotland; Book of Common Order 1564

Protestantism in Ireland

29. 1536 Irish Parliament approves English reformation laws; Church of
    Ireland established; most Irish people remained Roman Catholic

Lutheranism in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark

30. monarchies establish Lutheran state churches
31. Danish rule of Sweden and Norway since late 14th. century; 1520 Gustavus
    Vasa (r.1523-1560) leads Swedish revolt against Denmark; Olaus Petri
    translated New Testament into Swedish, organized a state Church according
    to the Lutheran model
 

VI. THE CATHOLIC AND THE COUNTER-REFORMATIONS, pages 465-470

1. pre-1517 Catholic Reformation: stimulation of a new spiritual fervor
2. 1540's Counter Reformation; reaction to the rise and spread of
    Protestantism, efforts to convince dissidents or heretics to return to the
    Church
 
 

The Slowness of Institutional Reform

3. Lateran Council 1512 Julius II; Adrian VI (1522-1523) - attempts to reform
    the Church and check the spread of Protestantism

a. Why did the popes move so slowly to correct the problems they knew existed

The Council of Trent

4. Pope Paul III (1534-1549): appointed learned and reform-minded cardinals,
    established the Inquisition in the Papal States, called the Council of
    Trent (1545-1563 intermittent)
5. attempt at reconciliation with Protestants
6. attempt by some bishops to gain the adoption of the conciliar principle;
    it was decided that all acts of the council required papal approval
7. Tridentine decrees

b. Why did France work against Protestant return to the Church?
c. What were the main accomplishments of the Council of Trent?

New Religious Orders

8. 1535 Ursuline Order of nuns, Angela Merici (1474-1540): to combat heresy
    through the Christian education of girls
9. 1540 Society of Jesus (Jesuits), Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556): resist the
    spread of Protestantism, convert the heathen, education; Spiritual
    Exercises 1548, emphasis on flexibility and willingness to respond to the
    needs of the times and circumstances

The Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office

10. established 1542, held jurisdiction over the Roman Inquisition, Cardinal
    Caraffa, principles of Roman Law - accepted hearsay evidence, did not
    have to inform the accused of the charges, could use torture
11. Index of Forbidden (Prohibited) Books

VII. LISTENING TO THE PAST: GRIEVANCES OF THE PEASANTS OF STUHLINGEN
AND LUPFEN, pages 474-475