I. OVERVIEW: Historiographers differ in the interpretation
of the exploration
and settlement of the New World. The two most accepted
points of view are:
A. The history of colonial America must be seen as
one phase of the
15th. century EUROPEAN
AGE OF DISCOVERY, which included both
exploration and exploitation.
B. The story of the early history of the Americas
is the story of
three diverse cultures -
NATIVE
AMERICAN, WESTERN EUROPEAN, and
WEST AFRICAN.
II. STUDY TIP: A handy tool in studying civilizations
is to remember
"PERCI" - the examination of the POLITICAL, ECONOMIC,
RELIGIOUS,
CULTURAL, and INTELLECTUAL characteristics of
a group of people.
III. PRE-COLUMBIAN AMERICA: The Americas formed out of
Pangaea about
225 million years ago.
A. BERINGIA STORY: This explanation
for how humans got to the Americas
begins about 30000 years
ago (during the Ice Age) when nomadic
peoples traveled from Siberia
across a land bridge (BERINGIA, which
emerged when the formation
of the glaciers lowered sea level) where
the Bering Strait now is.
By
7000 BC people had reached the tip of
South America and Beringia
had been claimed by the ocean, cutting off
contact with Asia (the glaciers
receded 10,000 years ago, raising
the level of the sea). The
name given to these earliest inhabitants
is **PALEO-INDIANS**.
B. PALEO-INDIANS: These people were
NOMADIC hunters and gatherers.
They traveled in family BANDS.
A group of allied bands was
called a TRIBE.
C. THREE ECONOMIC SYSTEMS DEVELOPED BY PALEO-INDIANS:
By
3500 BC
Paleo-Indians had developed three
distinctive economic systems -
1) Nomadic; 2) Agricultural; 3)
Mixed
1. Nomadic:
Due to poor soil or inadequate rainfall some groups
remained hunters and gatherers. Groups remained small so that
when food was found it would be sufficient for all. The
woolly mammoth was a favorite target. Hunters often stampeded
a herd so that the animals would fall off a cliff. The
paleo-Indians would then butcher the bodies of the fallen
animals.
2. Agricultural:
Earliest record of DOMESTICATION of plants
comes from central Mexico (7000 years ago). Important crops
included maize, squash, beans, chili peppers. Extensive
farming required permanent settlements or successive moves
between fixed locations.
3. Mixed: Combo of agriculture with hunting, gathering, fishing.
D. MULTIPLICITY: There were numerous
Indian tribes with varying
languages, cultures, political,
and economic systems. ALL OF THIS
DISCOURAGED UNITY AND
WOULD PREVENT ORGANIZING AGAINST A COMMON ENEMY
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E. COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN GROUPS
1. POLITICAL:
Indian political systems reflected CONSENSUS rather
than autocratic rule. This would later make it difficult for
colonial and U.S. leaders to make binding agreements with an
entire tribe since no one chief represented the whole.
2. RELIGION:
of all tribes was POLYTHEISTIC. Integration with
NATURE was an essential element. Gods also were associated
with the tribes main source of subsistence.
.
F. NORTH AMERICAN CIVILIZATIONS: Moundbuilders
(2000 years ago)
and Mississippian Culture
(1000 AD) were interim cultures between
Paleo-Indians and Historic
Indians.
G. MESOAMERICAN CIVILIZATIONS
1. MAYAS (300-900):
height of civilization past when Europeans
came but
still existed as a people and do today.
2. AZTECS (1325-1521)
inhabited central Mexico. Their capital city
was TENOCHTITLAN.
They consolidated their power & collected
tribute
from conquered peoples including the people themselves
for the
purpose of human sacrifice. Primary gods were the gods
of war
and the sun. Conquered by Spaniards under CORTES and
his conquistadores
in
1521. The Aztec leader, MONTEZUMA, was
killed.
(Reasons for fall of Aztec Empire: smallpox,
Quetzecoatl
story, aid to Spanish from other tribes, superior
technology
of Spanish.)
H. SOUTH AMERICA: Incas of Peru conquered
by Francisco PIZARRO and the
Spanish in 1532.
IV. AMERICAS ON THE BRINK OF "DISCOVERY": There were 100
million people
inhabiting the Americas in 1492. Most were in Mesoamerica
and South
America. There were ~10 million Native Americans
in the "United States"
and "Canada" when the Europeans first came.
V. WESTERN EUROPE IN THE 15TH. CENTURY: Contrast to Native Americans
A. POLITICS: Nation States ruled by
monarchs and supported by the
aristocracy. NATION-STATES: ENGLAND,
FRANCE, SPAIN, PORTUGAL,
NETHERLANDS
B. ECONOMY: mostly based on agriculture.
Majority of people lived in
small farming villages. Most farming
done by men. Hunting not
really important except as a sport
for aristocrats.
C. SOCIAL ORDER: Men dominated in religion
(Christianity), government,
education, and family governance.
(PATRIARCHY)
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VI. EUROPEAN AGE OF EXPLORATION
A. CAUSES
1. The RENAISSANCE
of the 14th. and 15th. centuries stimulated
intellectual
curiosity, optimism, and adventure. Men wanted to
know more
about the world. HUMANISM PROMOTED THE INDIVIDUAL.
2. The CRUSADES
(11th-14th. centuries) acquainted western Europe
with eastern
products (spices, silk, medicines, perfumes) and
promoted
a desire for trade.
3. The RISE OF NATION-STATES
promoted a spirit of NATIONALISM
and competition
for trade and wealth. They had the unity,
wealth,
and power to take on the challenge of exploration.
a. ENGLAND ruled by Tudors begun in 1485 by Henry VII
b.
FRANCE
ruled by Valois begun by Philip VI in 1328.
(Charles VII 1429-61; Louis XI 1461-1483; Charles VIII
1483-1498; Louis XII 1498-1515; Francis I 1515-1547
c. SPAIN rule by Ferdinand of Aragon & Isabella of Castile
4. TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENTS
including the PRINTING PRESS
(Gutenberg
- 1440's, made dissemination & sharing of ideas
easier),
the CARAVEL (more maneuverable ship that could sail
against
the wind), navigational instruments such as the
ASTROLABE
& QUADRANT (told how far north or south of the
equator
one was), the COMPASS, the PORTOLANO (collection of
sailing
maps), the LATEEN SAIL (triangular sail adopted from
Arabs
made ship more maneuverable) encouraged exploration.
5. STORIES
brought back by Crusaders, traders, and adventurers
like the Italian MARCO POLO (wrote Travels - in Cathay from
1271 to
1295) whetted interest of Europeans for exotic places
6. MAJOR TRADE ROUTES
controlled by Muslims (1453 conquered
Constantinople)
and Italians. Western Europeans needed an
alternate
trade route to the East in order to eliminate the
"middlemen"
to reduce prices and maximize profits. Desired
products
included spices, silk, dyes, perfumes, jewels & gold.
7. RELIGION:
There was a desire to spread CHRISTIANITY to the
heathen
peoples of the world.
8. MERCANTILISM:
an economic theory which said a strong nation
should
have colonies to serve as sources of raw materials and
markets
for finished products, encouraged exploration.
B. PORTUGUESE EXPLORATION
1. PRINCE HENRY THE
NAVIGATOR opened a school for navigators
in 1420
at Sagres on Cape Saint Vincent. Early discoveries
included
Madeira, the Azores, and Cape Verde. The concept was
to follow
the coast of Africa looking for a passage to the east
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2. TRADING POSTS
were established along the West African coast.
In 1441 the Portuguese began the SLAVE TRADE with African
chiefs.
Africa was established as a source of slave labor for
plantation
agriculture. In 1471 the Gold Coast was discovered.
This region
accounted for 1/10 of the world's gold production.
3. BARTHOLOMEW DIAS
was the first to reach the tip of Africa in
1488.
He named it the Cape of Storms because his ships were
battered
by high winds. It would late be called the Cape of
Good
Hope.
4. VASCO DA GAMA
was the first to round the Cape of Good Hope
and sail
on to India in 1498. Out of the 170 men who set out,
only 44
returned.
C. SPANISH EXPLORATION
1. After keeping him waiting
for 6 years, Queen Isabella agreed
to finance
the voyage of CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, a sea captain
from Genoa
(He had asked Genoa and Portugal first). He set
sail in
the NINA, the PINTA, and the SANTA MARIA (Columbus
flagship,
40 men) on August 3, 1492 from Palos, Spain. His
purpose
was to find a western route that would take him to the
riches
of the Far East. On October 12, 1492 he landed in SAN
SALVADOR,
an island in the Bahamas (Watling Island claims to be
San Salvador
but Samana Cay also claims that honor.) Believing
he had
reached the Indies, Columbus called the natives
"Indians".
On this first voyage Columbus also discovered
Hispaniola
and Cuba. Columbus made a total of four trips to
the New
World, discovering the Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico,
Trinidad,
Venezuela and the coast of Central America.
2. Columbus died in 1506 still convinced that he had reached Asia
D. AN EQUITABLE SETTLEMENT: Spain and
Portugal arrived at an
agreement which would prevent
fighting over land possessions in the
New World.
1. In 1493 POPE ALEXANDER
THE VI established the LINE OF
DEMARCATION
which divided undiscovered lands between Spain and
Portugal.
The Line ran through the Cape Verde Islands. All
lands
east of the Line would go to Portugal. All lands west of
the Line
would go to Spain.
2. In 1494 the pope presided
over the TREATY OF TORDISILLAS which
moved
the Line 375 miles to the West so that Portugal
controlled
Africa and eventually Brazil and Spain controlled
the rest
of the New World.
3. PEDRO CABRAL would explore
the mouth of the Amazon in 1500 for
Portugal
(He was bound for India but was blown off course).
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E. DECLINE OF SPAIN: From being the
most powerful nation in the world
in the 1400's to the mid-1500's,
Spain gradually sank into decline
while England rose to prominence
after 1588. Reasons for the
Spanish decline included:
1. INFLATION:
Influx of massive amounts of gold & silver led to
rampant
Inflation. Spanish goods were overpriced in European
markets
while imported goods were cheap in Spain. Many Spanish
businesses
collapsed.
2. WARS: Monarchs
had spent lavishly in wars against the Dutch and
the English
(War of the Spanish Netherlands, Armada-1588)
3. KINGLY LUXURIES:
Monarchs had spent much on personal
luxuries.
The monarchy was in debt to foreign creditors.
4. RECONQUISTA:
Spain had spent heavily on the completion of
freeing
Spain from the Moors. In 1492 Spain expelled Jews and
Moors
many of whom were skilled in technology, science, and
business.
This hurt Spanish advancement.
VII. THE COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE
A. EUROPE GAVE THE NEW WORLD: diseases
including smallpox (greatest
killer); influenza;measles; chicken
pox; cholera; yellow fever;
malaria (the Indians lack of immunity
to these diseases resulted
in the decimation of native populations
- 90% loss of life in the 100
years following Columbus's arrival);
horses
(vast changes to life of
Plains Indians - caused the western
tribes to concentrate almost
totally on the buffalo as a source
of food); sugar cane
B. THE NEW WORLD GAVE EUROPE: syphilis
(1493);
foods: corn, squash,
manioc, potatoes, sweet potatoes
(these had a massive impact on food
production in Europe); tobacco
(Indian Weed); beaver pelts